History of Rashidun Caliphate Explained

 One of the most interesting point in the expansion of Muslim world is the rapidity of this spread. In the first years of new religion, when Muhammad was still alive, the Arabian peoples were ones who bowed different things. Some state that the bowing of the Kaaba, the cube on the square in Mecca, which everyone Muslim should see, goes back to the very pagan times, when the people on the Arabian Peninsula bowed sun and moon. That time these tribes inhabited generally in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, got quickly arranged, moving to a new step of development and starting a newborn emprire - the Caliphate, and for several years subjugated immense lands on 3 mainlands. Initially it looks all things was easy and smooth, but if you stare at it, you will have a different situation.

The roots of this huge state originated with the death of the Prophet, who started a new religion - Islam. The first stage of the Caliphate was Rashidun Caliphate. Islamic peoples think this period lasted the reign of the early five rulers, although it is not obvious why the Caliphs are "Rashidun righteous" than others. Just after Muhammad, the following Caliph Abu Bakr had to face the troubles. New religion has not had time to sit confidently in the heads of the Arabic tribes so some of them started to move towards new living prophets. About each family had a preacher, who this peoples were going to listen to. Is seems if there would not be Muhammad, Muhammad's post was aimed by some other competitors, and nobody can guess how would be look the Arabic states, if the role of Muhammad was replaced by any of these rivals. The first Caliph was managed to stop disagreement and dispose one tribe after another. After tree years of wars, Abu Bakr bequeathed the place of the ruler to his friend Umar. This fellow is known for a number of politic and judicial reforms. This guy set up a kind of the Accounting Chamber, and some kind of pariament. While Umar's rule the Koran was eventually composed and the Islamic calendar, started since the Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina, was intoduced. He had to fight with local apostates, but Umar was managed to dramatically extended the lands of the state. It seems that just because of his lively aggressive career, the guy was murdered by a slave while praying.

Next ruler, Uthman, was killed as well. In Uthman's 12-years-long reign opposition sentiments against Uthman raised. After some engagements the opposition of the ruler invaded to his home and killed Caliph while he was studing the Koran. Usman's supporters, in turn, determined to avenge for slain of the Caliph and murdered about four thousand opponents. The next ruler start military engagement with them, which today called the battle of Camel. In a little while the new caliph was murdered by opponents disliked the crack in the Islamic society. After that Muawiya, new ruler of Caliphate, left the post to his son, thus disestablished the Rashidun Caliphate and establishing the next state. We will talk about this state in one of future posts.

Ottoman-Habsburg Wars

This story began due to Hungary. The Habsburgs, which had gained a considerable part of Europe, were not averse to receive neighboring Hungary as well, despite the fact which it shrank by 70% after the fight with Turkey. Hungarians, by the way, initially were not Europeans at all, but representatives of the nomadic Finno-Ugric people, who came from the central provinces of modern Russia, so fellows did not feel any genetic unity with the Austrians. During the whole story, after Austria attempted to attract Hungary, it received a symmetrical rebuff.

This time the same thing happened. After the ruler of Hungary died in battle against the Turks, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand I immediately claimed his rights to the Hungarian vacant throne, as this fellow was married to the ex-ruler's sister, and was even ready to prove his rights to these lands by force. Simultaneously, a new native ruler, Janos Zapolya, drew himself, who did not hesitate to resort to the aid of the Ottoman Empire in order to fight off the attacks of Austria. The Sultan of the Ottomans then was Suleiman I, who is known as Suleiman the Magnificent. This fellow was nicknamed Magnificent in Europe, because this sultan was one of the biggest supporter of Western culture and often invited prominent European artists to his court. So the most famous image of this sultan was painted by none but Titian. The Turks call him Suleiman Kununi, or Suleiman the Legislator, since the fellow published a code of laws according to which the population of the Ottoman Empire lived for a long time. In general, under Suleiman I his Empire as well reached its apex. As you can see, the guy was intelligent, and therefore the Sultan can not pass the opportunity to get vast territories for his empire for free. Ferdinand felt the danger and made an attempt to peacefully negotiate with Suleiman, but his ambassadors returned from Istanbul without success. Suleiman dealt soon with Austria and sent his forces directly to the heart of Ferdinand's empire, to the city of Vienna. On the way, the fellow crowned Janos Zapolya in the long-suffering city of Mohache, making Hungary a satellite state, and then captured the city of Buda, today's capital of modern Hungary, Budapest. There Suleiman seated Zapolya on the throne as well. Due to severe weather and conditions similar to torrential rains, Suleiman's forces spent more time and effort than expected, so, after a some week siege, the forces had to retreat. For the Habsburgs, this looked a real miracle. The departing Turks again were unlucky with the weather and fellows suffered from an abnormally early snowfall. It was so strong strike to the forces of Sultan that the guy managed to consolidate in a campaign against the Habsburgs only in 3 years.

 After this engagement war among the Austria and the Ottoman Empire continued practically 200 years, after which Turkey lost power and surrendered most of its territories. However, this is an issue for a separate post.

History of Brittany Explaned

Bretons... If anyone does not know, that people belongs to the Celts. At first glance the people inhabited in the British Isles, but they were pressed by the Angles and Saxons there. In the period of the great migration German people migrated massively where one's feet would take one, and one of these places were the British Isles. It is why the unlucky delegation of the Celtic population had to move across the Channel to the mainland. There fellows occupied vast territories along the strait. The next wave of migration to the continent occurred in the 9th century and the fellows were already the baptized Brits. That time laid a legend of several Celtic saints. After the borders of feudal Europe began to be drawn in the Middle Ages, Brittany became divided into some kingdoms: Domnonee, Cornouai, and Bro Waroc'h. Two former were named after the territories, from where the people inhabiting this lands came, and the third was named in honor of one stern fellow, a leader of the Bretons that time.

These some provinces were subsequently united into the Duchy of Brittany. This duchy was located near the Norman duchy, so during the Norman conquest of England, the Bretons took a direct part in the campaign of William the Conqueror. And after the conquest, many of the Bretons received bonuses and presents in the form of rich land allotments and every sorts of titles. In 1166, the Duchy of Brittany became the issue of a dispute among some great powers such as England and Kingdom of France, and shortly after lost its sovereignty. In the 14th century, the Duchy of Brittany regained its sovereignty, but still attracted great interest from outside its borders.

Anna of Brittany, who received her post of duchess in 1488, became the last ruler of the independent Brittany. Despite the peace agreement, signed by the ruler of England Henry VII and German emperor Maximilian I to aid the duchy, the French king Charles VIII forced Anna to marry him, taking all the land of Brittany. After his sudden death, Anna quickly proclaimed the sovereignty of the duchy, but shortly after was forced to marry the next French ruler, Louis XII. After her death, provoked by kidney stones, her heart was transferred to the chapel of Nantes, and the duchy lost all hope of regaining the sovereignty.

Carolingian Renaissance

Hello, everyone! How long I did not post a string here... But today I want to touch a very important topic in World culture, Carolingian Renaissance... If you search the Internet for information on this issue, you can stumble upon the enumeration of the most epic moments in the life of Charlemagne, similar to his private life and feats: coronation by the pope in Rome or the conquest of the Saxons. But, revival is a cultural phenomenon and it refers to military and political spheres only indirectly. Also, despite the fact that the period is named after this successful and prominent ruler of the Frankish state, the period did not end with the death of Charlemagne, but continued for more than half a century. This period was claimed the Renaissance only in 20th century, before it was believed that the whole history of the middle ages until the Italian Renaissance was completely dark ages a a wild time. But looking closer, several scientists saw a gap in the clouds.

Pope Leo III crowns Frankish king Charlemagne Emperor of West

What was the reason for this cultural gap happened? First, after conquering vast territories, Frankish rulers needed an educated administration in different pieces of the empire to manage these very lands. But after Dark Ages, this was a difficult thing to find them. Secondly, the classical Latin, which was that time an international language, began to come in decline in France. It became harder and harder to maintain communication with the pope. Simultaneously, Latin in France gradually became a Frankish dialect. To remedy the situation, Charlemagne decided to organize something like an academy in his palace and invited the most prominent theologians from Europe, such as Alcuin from the British York or Paul Diacon from Italy and so on.

Detail of the Utrecht Psalter, a masterpiece of Carolingian art

First of all, the Carolingian revival is characterized by the appearance of several hot medieval miniatures. For example, in Utrecht Psalter there are as many as 166 pictures depicting every kind of chants, musical instruments and cleric’s subjects. Naturally, this cultural breakthrough was connected with the clerics: the manuscripts were made by monks, miniatures depict the life of monasteries and saints, architectural trends were implemented in churches and monasteries, music was mostly monotonous Gregorian singing. A list of the most notable works of the era can be seen here. But, there was interest to the ancient manuscripts as well, and it was early time since ancient times. No one century, from the fourth to the fourteenth, was characterized by so many rewritten ancient manuscripts. Even the description of ancient pagan rituals and beliefs did not bother the clerics.

Revival showed itself not alone in the field of art. Charlemagne decided to carry out monetary and legislative reforms as well and even succeeded in it. In general, politically and culturally, Europe that time was even more integrated than currently, IMHO.

7 the Most Famous Castles in the World

7 castles that everyone knows almost since childhood. If you don't know any castle in the list it is worth to read this post. The photos and some information were taken here, the list of the best castles in the world on Histroystack.

1. Windsor Castle. One of the most recognizable castle in the World. It was initially the residence of English kings, today is the main residence of British one. The castle was founded just after Norman conquest of England to control routes via the river Thames and was reconstructed and enlarged by a number of rulers in different times of his history. 
   
2.   Tower of London. It is the second castle in the list located in British territory but it is very similar to Windsor Castle. The Tower of London was also built after conquest of England by the Normans, and has some similarities with one in Windsor. For some centuries it was used as political prison, where some former English rulers were kept. One of them was Anne Boleyn. It also kept in awe many opponents of reigning family.
   
3. Edinburgh Castle. The third and the last castle in British isles in this list. It was built in early stage of wars between England and Scotland and was the main stronghold of the Scots for the centuries. Today it is one of the symbols of Edinburgh and many thousands tourists visit Scotland just in order to see this legendary landmark. The majority of them visit the city in the summer, when Edinburgh hosts Edinburgh festival where the castle becomes very popular venue.
   
4. Rumeli. The single castle in this list outside Europe, but it located just in some hundreds meters from Europe. Usually we associate castle with Western Europe, but it is both very beautiful and historically important. It was built shortly before the turning event in European history - the fall of Constantinople. Turkish sultan Mehmet II, who sometimes is called Mehmet the Conqueror, ordered to built it to facilitate conquest of Byzantium.
   
5. Mont Saint-Michel. Honestly, this architecture object is not true castle, but often included in number of them. Started as a monastery on island, it was fortified for some centuries and get its modern shape only in year 1520. Sometimes Mont Saint-Michel is called one of the symbols of France. Its extraordinary appearance mirroring on surface of water attract attention of crowds of people from all over the World. 
   
6. Château de Chambord. One more castle form France. As Mont Saint-Michel it is not true medieval castle, that was built to resist attacks of cruel enemies. As many analogs of early baroque is was build as mansion of king of France Francis I. Large number of flues, curved sculptures, stylish towers makes the castle the most beautiful one among the wide number of castle on the Loire River.
   
7. Neuschwanstein Castle. The most fabulous castle in this list and in the World at all. Everyone has seen at least once the copy of this castle on Walt Disney's logo. Neuschwanstein Castle inspired Disney's staff to use it also as the castle in some cartoons, such as Cinderella. One notable moment is that the castle located in high mountains in Bavaria region, Germany, so it is integrated in beautiful landscape.
   
   
   

Prince Faisal. One Historical Assassination

Who of the prominent sovereigns was killed while an endeavor to assassinate him? Almost everyone remembers Lincoln, Caesar, maybe Russian czar Alexander II... The series could be lasted by a less prominent person, king of Saudi Arabia Faisal. However the post today will not be about the ruler, but in contrary about the killer.

King of Saudi Arabia Faisal

The assassin, we should mention, was king's relative and was his namesake, Faisal ibn Musaid. He originated from a famous family of Saudis, so one relative of him, Abdurrahman, was a significant magnate and head of the soccer club. Another of relatives was fervent member of a strictly Sunni sect and was killed while a remonstrance struggling against the a television. In Muslim world, an depiction of alive creature is prohibited. That is why the supporters of the Faisal's relative started a strike, in the time of which he was assassinated.

In the UAE, folk have the privilege to get education at any college in the World. It is a question about the citizens in Arabia, however the members of the ruling branch are also have good opportunities. Faisal's brother, mentioned in previous paragraph, got a degree at France, and Khalid was able to learn at several universities in America. However, while studying, the youthful guy was seized by authorities for the sharing the drugs, for that, after Faisal's arrival from the US, the government voided his documents.

Whether due to the documents, or for another causes, however bin Musaid had arranged a bad thing. On sunny morning the ruler carried out majlis, which refers to sort of a king's talk with his visitors. That time the king talked with the foreign representatives, and Faisal attached to them. When the crowd approached to the king, he recognized his nephew and bowed the cheek so the nephew could give smacking kisses, however the nephew made a shot in his own uncle two times. The security guard of the king took out cold steel (except for guns the guys were armed with swords), and grasped the murderer.

At first the murderer was claimed to be insane, however having thought for the situation, guys determined to kill the the guy in the end. Just after the trial, the vehicles reproducers called to arrive and look at the bin Musaid's murder. When the people gathered the assassin's head was cut off with a single hit of the gilded sword, and then the head was shown for twenty minutes on a wood picket for any guy to look at. Soon guys grasped the corpse and the head from picket, and carried these parts in the hospital. Such a pitiful final.

Earth Evolution. The Beginning

Hi, friends! I'm again with you and glad to claim this day is a very joyful day. This time all the secrets of the universe will reveal to you. Why? Because I'm going to talk about the most epic milestones in the evolution of our planet. The history of our planet in pictures.

So, our planet was born many years ago, to be exact, 4.5 billion. There is a mass evidences for this event, among them are the carbon dating of the early continental shields and all the sorts of pieces of iron which fell on early planet. On the moon, by the way, the carbon dating of the pieces of meteorites collected by American astronauts shows the same age. The age of the Sun can also be determined by the relative amount of hydrogen burned in it. This time the Sun has consumed about a third of its reserves. So, the Sun is going to burn eight billion years more, which is the usual life cycle for a star like our Sun.

The sun, by the way, was formed simultaneously with the formation of other objects of the solar system. Maybe a little earlier. All these things were formed from the gas-dust cloud, which supernovas spit out far from themselves during the explosion. After they have recycled light chemicals into heavier ones, stars shrink, and then make a bang. These bangs collected all the dirt 4.5 billion years ago at the site of our star system. And the explosion of next supernova formed a disk shape from the giant cloud and began the process of formation of our little Universe. The rotational moment began to stretch the cloud into an even more flat disk, and the forces of gravity collected its vast amount of dirt in the center. Over time, the enormous pressure and friction of the substance inside him provoked a flash making a vast thermonuclear reactor, which was worshiped by the ancient Egyptians, who believed that every day a Scarabaeus sacer rolls it away out the horizon. These same reactions also caused significant streams of solar wind, which cleared the private space of the star. An additional substance arrived in a rotating disk, in which rings, similar to the rings of the planet of Saturn, gradually were forming.

These rings of the rotational substance were the progenitors of the planets close to the sun. The solar wind blew hydrogen away from the solid planets, and this hydrogen began to gather in the gas planets: the planet of Saturn, the planet of Jupiter, Neptune and Uranus. The sum of solid objects initially was more than a hundred. But, as a result of the gravity interaction and the impacts of different celestial bodies, only some of them survived. Our home also suffered from one such collision. A small planet with the size of Mars brutally hit Earth 400 million years after its origin, and spit out a pile of dust and debris into orbit.

The only natural satellite of the Earth, the Moon, was formed from these pieces. According to scientists, life would be very different from the current one and can not be born without this satellite at all. So not all explosions are evil. Then there was no life, no oceans, no continents. So as a result, no one was hurt. The world was still similar to a fluid sphere in imponderability, the shields had not yet formed, the moon turned very close to the Earth and looked many times larger than today. The tides and ebbs were also stunning due to the gravitation of the Moon, and the hill on the surface reached about 30 meters. The world's shields began to shape half a billion years later. This span is not small both to our and Universe standards. Solidifying magma also formed giant reservoirs for collecting water, which began to shape early oceans.

Simultaneously with the origin of continents and oceans, next milestone event occurred. It was the origin of life. Scientists have not came to the conclusion what provoked the inorganic substance to become organic which began to breed, but most likely it happened in some extreme conditions. Someone says that this could happen in the atmosphere during a lightning strike, someone that was in ice, during numerous cycles of freezing and warming. The most likely version is the one about black smokers. No, these are not African Americans who indulge in marijuana, but hot geysers, located at a very deep deepness. High pressure and temperature can serve as a good catalyst for all kinds of chemical processes, as a result of which early cells, protocaryotes, originated. These organisms did not have nuclei and mitochondria, and used carbon gas to make energy.

Well, it is enough for introduction. I'm thinking of continuing the story about the evolution of the Earth in future posts. Did you liked it?