History of Rashidun Caliphate Explained

 One of the most interesting point in the expansion of Muslim world is the rapidity of this spread. In the first years of new religion, when Muhammad was still alive, the Arabian peoples were ones who bowed different things. Some state that the bowing of the Kaaba, the cube on the square in Mecca, which everyone Muslim should see, goes back to the very pagan times, when the people on the Arabian Peninsula bowed sun and moon. That time these tribes inhabited generally in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, got quickly arranged, moving to a new step of development and starting a newborn emprire - the Caliphate, and for several years subjugated immense lands on 3 mainlands. Initially it looks all things was easy and smooth, but if you stare at it, you will have a different situation.

The roots of this huge state originated with the death of the Prophet, who started a new religion - Islam. The first stage of the Caliphate was Rashidun Caliphate. Islamic peoples think this period lasted the reign of the early five rulers, although it is not obvious why the Caliphs are "Rashidun righteous" than others. Just after Muhammad, the following Caliph Abu Bakr had to face the troubles. New religion has not had time to sit confidently in the heads of the Arabic tribes so some of them started to move towards new living prophets. About each family had a preacher, who this peoples were going to listen to. Is seems if there would not be Muhammad, Muhammad's post was aimed by some other competitors, and nobody can guess how would be look the Arabic states, if the role of Muhammad was replaced by any of these rivals. The first Caliph was managed to stop disagreement and dispose one tribe after another. After tree years of wars, Abu Bakr bequeathed the place of the ruler to his friend Umar. This fellow is known for a number of politic and judicial reforms. This guy set up a kind of the Accounting Chamber, and some kind of pariament. While Umar's rule the Koran was eventually composed and the Islamic calendar, started since the Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina, was intoduced. He had to fight with local apostates, but Umar was managed to dramatically extended the lands of the state. It seems that just because of his lively aggressive career, the guy was murdered by a slave while praying.

Next ruler, Uthman, was killed as well. In Uthman's 12-years-long reign opposition sentiments against Uthman raised. After some engagements the opposition of the ruler invaded to his home and killed Caliph while he was studing the Koran. Usman's supporters, in turn, determined to avenge for slain of the Caliph and murdered about four thousand opponents. The next ruler start military engagement with them, which today called the battle of Camel. In a little while the new caliph was murdered by opponents disliked the crack in the Islamic society. After that Muawiya, new ruler of Caliphate, left the post to his son, thus disestablished the Rashidun Caliphate and establishing the next state. We will talk about this state in one of future posts.

Ottoman-Habsburg Wars

This story began due to Hungary. The Habsburgs, which had gained a considerable part of Europe, were not averse to receive neighboring Hungary as well, despite the fact which it shrank by 70% after the fight with Turkey. Hungarians, by the way, initially were not Europeans at all, but representatives of the nomadic Finno-Ugric people, who came from the central provinces of modern Russia, so fellows did not feel any genetic unity with the Austrians. During the whole story, after Austria attempted to attract Hungary, it received a symmetrical rebuff.

This time the same thing happened. After the ruler of Hungary died in battle against the Turks, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Ferdinand I immediately claimed his rights to the Hungarian vacant throne, as this fellow was married to the ex-ruler's sister, and was even ready to prove his rights to these lands by force. Simultaneously, a new native ruler, Janos Zapolya, drew himself, who did not hesitate to resort to the aid of the Ottoman Empire in order to fight off the attacks of Austria. The Sultan of the Ottomans then was Suleiman I, who is known as Suleiman the Magnificent. This fellow was nicknamed Magnificent in Europe, because this sultan was one of the biggest supporter of Western culture and often invited prominent European artists to his court. So the most famous image of this sultan was painted by none but Titian. The Turks call him Suleiman Kununi, or Suleiman the Legislator, since the fellow published a code of laws according to which the population of the Ottoman Empire lived for a long time. In general, under Suleiman I his Empire as well reached its apex. As you can see, the guy was intelligent, and therefore the Sultan can not pass the opportunity to get vast territories for his empire for free. Ferdinand felt the danger and made an attempt to peacefully negotiate with Suleiman, but his ambassadors returned from Istanbul without success. Suleiman dealt soon with Austria and sent his forces directly to the heart of Ferdinand's empire, to the city of Vienna. On the way, the fellow crowned Janos Zapolya in the long-suffering city of Mohache, making Hungary a satellite state, and then captured the city of Buda, today's capital of modern Hungary, Budapest. There Suleiman seated Zapolya on the throne as well. Due to severe weather and conditions similar to torrential rains, Suleiman's forces spent more time and effort than expected, so, after a some week siege, the forces had to retreat. For the Habsburgs, this looked a real miracle. The departing Turks again were unlucky with the weather and fellows suffered from an abnormally early snowfall. It was so strong strike to the forces of Sultan that the guy managed to consolidate in a campaign against the Habsburgs only in 3 years.

 After this engagement war among the Austria and the Ottoman Empire continued practically 200 years, after which Turkey lost power and surrendered most of its territories. However, this is an issue for a separate post.

History of Brittany Explaned

Bretons... If anyone does not know, that people belongs to the Celts. At first glance the people inhabited in the British Isles, but they were pressed by the Angles and Saxons there. In the period of the great migration German people migrated massively where one's feet would take one, and one of these places were the British Isles. It is why the unlucky delegation of the Celtic population had to move across the Channel to the mainland. There fellows occupied vast territories along the strait. The next wave of migration to the continent occurred in the 9th century and the fellows were already the baptized Brits. That time laid a legend of several Celtic saints. After the borders of feudal Europe began to be drawn in the Middle Ages, Brittany became divided into some kingdoms: Domnonee, Cornouai, and Bro Waroc'h. Two former were named after the territories, from where the people inhabiting this lands came, and the third was named in honor of one stern fellow, a leader of the Bretons that time.

These some provinces were subsequently united into the Duchy of Brittany. This duchy was located near the Norman duchy, so during the Norman conquest of England, the Bretons took a direct part in the campaign of William the Conqueror. And after the conquest, many of the Bretons received bonuses and presents in the form of rich land allotments and every sorts of titles. In 1166, the Duchy of Brittany became the issue of a dispute among some great powers such as England and Kingdom of France, and shortly after lost its sovereignty. In the 14th century, the Duchy of Brittany regained its sovereignty, but still attracted great interest from outside its borders.

Anna of Brittany, who received her post of duchess in 1488, became the last ruler of the independent Brittany. Despite the peace agreement, signed by the ruler of England Henry VII and German emperor Maximilian I to aid the duchy, the French king Charles VIII forced Anna to marry him, taking all the land of Brittany. After his sudden death, Anna quickly proclaimed the sovereignty of the duchy, but shortly after was forced to marry the next French ruler, Louis XII. After her death, provoked by kidney stones, her heart was transferred to the chapel of Nantes, and the duchy lost all hope of regaining the sovereignty.